The greater part of colony losses is caused by diseases and pests. This section brings together the agents a beekeeper needs to recognise and the logic of control.

Groups

• Brood diseases: American and European foulbrood, chalkbrood, stonebrood, sacbrood
• Adult bee diseases: Nosema, amoeba, septicaemia, viruses
• Mites: Varroa, Tropilaelaps, tracheal mite
• In-hive pests: Wax moths, small hive beetle
• Outside-hive pests: Hornets, wasps, birds, mammals

The problem at the centre

Today the single largest cause of colony losses is Varroa and the viruses it carries. Most other agents run a more severe course in a colony already under mite pressure.

Health management is therefore largely Varroa management.

The logic of control

Eliminating a pest is not the goal; keeping it below the threshold of damage is. Elimination is not possible, and attempting it produces resistance.

The working sequence is: measure, check the threshold, prevent, try the non-chemical option, use a chemical if required, measure the result.

Reporting obligations

Some agents cease to be the problem of a single apiary and become a regional threat. American foulbrood, small hive beetle and Tropilaelaps are notifiable in many countries.

With these the beekeeper's first duty is not treatment but informing the competent authority.

The most effective protection

• Regular monitoring
• Comb renewal
• Equipment hygiene and cleaning between hives
• Not buying colonies from unknown sources
• Keeping colonies strong and well fed
• Keeping records